The Life And Death Of Tupac Shakur free essay sample

Essay, Research Paper Tupac Shakur was born in New York City. His female parent # 8217 ; s name was Afeni Skakur. She was a member of the Black Panther Party. She was pregnant with him while in prison for bombardment charges. Tupac comes from the Incas significance reflecting snake and Shakur is Arabic intending # 8220 ; thankfull to god # 8221 ; . In 1986 the Skakur household moved to Baltimore. In Baltimore Tupac enrolled in the Baltimore School for Arts. At this school he writes his first blame vocal under the name MC New York. Then in June of 1988 the Shakur # 8217 ; s moved to Marin City California. Shortly after traveling to Marin City Tupac moved in with a neighbour. This is when he starts selling drugs. In Augest of 1988 Tupac # 8217 ; s measure pa Mutulu Shakur is sentenced to 60 old ages in gaol for his engagement in a 1981 armored-car robbery. Tupac eventually stops selling drugs. In 1990 he joins a blame group called the Digital Underground. We will write a custom essay sample on The Life And Death Of Tupac Shakur or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page He joins the group as a roadie, terpsichorean and rapper. Tupac is a large hit wit the group and he get down to work on his solo album. In 1991 he eventually achieves single acknowledgment wit his first solo album titled # 8220 ; 2PACALYPSE NOW # 8221 ; .The most successful paths of this album were # 8220 ; Trapped # 8221 ; and # 8220 ; Brenda # 8217 ; Got A Baby # 8221 ; . These two paths showed that Tupac had a soft side. In 1992 Shakur made his film introduction in # 8220 ; Juice # 8221 ; .And so in 1993 Tupac stared in his 2nd film # 8220 ; Poetic Justice # 8221 ; . This film besides starred Janet Jackson. After the film Poetic Justice Tupac was eventually acquiring recognized around the universe as a film star non merely a mobster rapper. In 1994 Tupac made another album called # 8220 ; Thug Life # 8221 ; . This was non a solo album he worked wit rappers Syce, Mopreme, and The Rated R. This album showed that he was a West-side mobster non an East-side mobster no more. In the same twelvemonth of the release of the album he starred in another film called # 8220 ; Above the Rim # 8221 ; . In November of 1994 Shakur # 8217 ; s New York sex assault test is opened. In the same month while coming out of a Ill-famed B.I.G picture shoot Tupac was shot in an evident robbery effort outside the music studio. Tupac blamed the shot on the Notorious B.I.G. Just one twenty-four hours after the hiting Tupac was convicted of sexually mistreating a adult females he had invited to his hotel room. He was besides charged with sodomy and arms charges. In 1995 he released his 2nd solo album called # 8220 ; Me Against The World # 8221 ; this was a multi-million-selling album. In February of 1995 he was sentenced in New York to four and a half old ages in gaol for sexually maltreatment. In May of 1995 Shakur long clip girlfriend Keisha Morris. In October of 1995 Shakur is released from gaol on bond after functioning 8 months. In 1996 Shakur released another album # 8220 ; All Eyess On Me # 8221 ; . This album debuted on the Billboard charts as figure 1.It went on to sell about 5 million transcripts. The vocals # 8220 ; How Do You Desire It # 8221 ; and California Love # 8221 ; were on the top 10 Billboard Charts for months. Then in October he starred in another film called # 8220 ; Gang Related # 8221 ; . On September 10 of 1996 Shakur was on his manner to a nine called 667 when he was shot. his record manufacturer Suge Knight merely got a caput graze. Then on September 13 Shakur was pronounced dead at 4:03 autopsy. Not much was known about the decease of Tupac. The bulls neer found the individual who killed him but they think a member of a rival pack called the Crips did it. After Tupac # 8217 ; s decease many of his fans couldn # 8217 ; t except his decease so they started rumours of him forging his on decease. Just a few months subsequently another one of his albums came out. It was called # 8220 ; R U Still Down # 8221 ; . Tupac neer had a opportunity to acquire rid of his thug image. He died at the age of 25. Many people think he could of restarted the Black Panthers. Tupac was a really originative adult male. Here is on of his verse forms: by Tupac Shakur Today is filled with choler, fueled with concealed hatred. Scared of being outkast, afraid of common destiny. Today is build on calamities which no 1 want # 8217 ; s to face. Nightmares to humanity and morally disgraced. Tonight is filled with Rage, force in the air. Childs bred with pitilessness cause no 1 at place attentions. Tonight I lay my caput down but the force per unit area neer stops, cognizing that my saneness content when I # 8217 ; m droped. But tomorrow I see alteration, a opportunity to construct a new, physique on spirit purpose of bosom and thoughts based on truth. Tomorrow I wake with 2nd air current and strong because of pride. I know I fought with all my bosom to maintain the dream alive. by jay12321 @ aol.com

The House of Capulet in Romeo and Juliet

The House of Capulet in Romeo and Juliet The House of Capulet in Romeo and Juliet is one of fair Verona’s two feuding families- the other being the House of Montague. Capulet’s daughter, Juliet, falls in love with Romeo, the son of Montague and they elope, much to the anger of their respective families. Heres a look at the major players in the House of Capulet. Capulet (Juliets Father) Hes head of the Capulet clan, married to Lady Capulet and father to Juliet. Capulet is locked in an on-going, bitter and unexplained dispute with the Montague family. Capulet is very much in charge and demands respect. He is prone to rage if he does not get his own way. Capulet loves his daughter very much but is out of touch with her hopes and dreams. He believes that she should marry Paris. Lady Capulet (Juliets Mother) Married to Capulet and mother to Juliet, Lady Capulet appears distanced from her daughter. It is interesting to note that Juliet receives most of her moral guidance and affection from the Nurse. Lady Capulet, who also married young, believes it was high time Juliet was married off and chooses Paris as the appropriate candidate. But when Juliet declines to marry Paris, Lady Capulet turns on her: Talk not to me, for Ill not speak a word; do as thou wilt, for I am done with thee. Lady Capulet takes the news of her nephew Tybalts death extremely hard, going so far as to wish death on his killer, Romeo. Juliet Capulet Our female protagonist is 13 years old and about to be married to Paris. However, Juliet soon stumbles upon her fate when she meets Romeo,  and instantly falls in love with him, despite him being the son of her family’s enemy. Over the course of the play, Juliet matures, making the decision to abandon her family to be with Romeo. But like most women in Shakespeares plays, Juliet has little personal freedom. Tybalt Lady Capulet’s nephew and Juliet’s cousin, Tybalt is antagonistic and has a deep hatred of the Montagues. He has a short temper and is quick to draw his sword when his ego is in danger of being damaged. Tybalt has a vindictive nature and is feared. When Romeo kills him, this is a major turning point in the play. Juliet’s Nurse A loyal maternal figure and friend to Juliet, the Nurse provides moral guidance and practical advice. She knows Juliet better than anyone else and provides comic relief in the play with her bawdy sense of humor. The Nurse has a disagreement with Juliet near the end of the play which demonstrates her lack of understanding about the intensity of Juliet’s feelings about love and about Romeo. Servants of the Capulets Samson: After the Chorus, he is the first character to speak and establishes the conflict between the Capulets and the Montagues. Gregory: Along with Samson, he discusses the tension in the Montague household. Peter: Illiterate and a bad singer,  Peter invites guests to the Capulets’ feast and escorts the Nurse to meet with Romeo.

Changes In Company's Culture Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Changes In Company's Culture - Research Paper Example This paper stresses that there is a strong relationship between culture and performance. A supportive culture enhances the organization’s competitive advantage in terms of higher outputs, improved profits, increased employee retention and enhanced working environment. Culture determines employee attitudes, their motivation and consequent organizational performance. This paper has highlighted change in organizational culture, the two levels of organizational culture, the use of culture measures in change situations, failure to achieve organizational culture change, and implementing the process successfully. Sustainable organizational change cannot be effectively implemented by structural or systemic changes to the organization. On the other hand, it is brought about by powerful techniques that work successfully through strong communications with employees. These communications convey both the means by which the organization will change the way it functions and about the new cultural goals of the organization. Effective organizational change occurs when completely new climates and cultures are created and maintained by the company. Different types of climates and cultures may be equally effective for different organizations according to their industry, markets and nature of their workforce. To ensure successful cultural change management in an or ganization, and to break the spiral of dysfunctional failures, the climate and culture levels offer numerous opportunities for the company’s management to bring about sustainable change.

Is Censorship Good or Bad for the Society Outline

Is Censorship Good or Bad for the Society - Outline Example The author of the paper states that censorship is both beneficial and disadvantageous but it should be applied for certain reasons and should be avoided for others. Several laws in the media industry have been created regarding the issue of censorship and the need for such laws has been highly demanded. On the other hand, those not in the favor of censorship state that censorship has no importance and complete viewership should be accepted by law and media. The debate regarding the question of whether censorship is good or bad for the interest of the public is viewed from several angles. Those who oppose censorship state that it violates constitutional rights.  The coalition further stated that a society that is based on pluralist grounds can never agree on any issue and will have a difference of opinion and this difference of opinion is necessary to achieve creativity and growth that is intellectual in nature. This means that the coalition believes that one of the most important r ights that an individual has is the freedom of communication and it is necessary to develop a healthy democracy. One of the concerns related to the infringing of the right to freedom of speech is that it will result in a chilling effect. The chilling effect is defined as a discouragement of conducting a completely lawful act due to fear of punishment (Margolis 103). Julie Hilden states that reactions that resulted due to the exposure and scandal of Janet Jackson allow the Congress to pass laws and regulations that are not necessary for the society (as cited in Tavani, 296). She even stated that censorship was assumed to be necessary by the Congress even if it infringes upon the right of freedom of speech and she even figured out that Congress is blaming - and imposing laws of censorship on - those parties that were not even directly or indirectly involved in the scandal. Powell has stated that he had no problems in applying liability and holding broadcasters responsible even if they were not the perpetrators of the crime (Minkin 123). Those who are in favor of censorship state that Constitution can be differently interpreted depending upon the case being argued. They even state that interpretation of freedom of speech under the First Amendment is not as easy to understand as it might seem.  

The Zara Business Plan Marketing Essay

The Zara Business Plan Marketing Essay Zara offers the latest trends in international fashion in an environment of thought-out design. Its stores, located in the main commercial areas of cities across Europe, America and Asia, offer fashion inspired in the tastes, wishes and lifestyles of todays men and women. Zara moves at the pace of society, fashion ideas, and trends that society itself has natured. Hence its success among people, cultures and generations that, in spite of their differences, share a special sensitivity for fashion. Due to the growing of the clothing industry and the enormous unmet need in the market in the Puget Sound, we see the long-term expansion and potential of Zara throughout the Northwest. We are visionaries who see Zara as an extreme financial launch. By achieving its sales targets, Zara will position itself for exceptional profitability and self-funded growth. With our plans of Zaras expansion in South Centre Mall, our plan is to generate revenues of $7,094,763 by 2008. Management of Zara is seeking an investment of $800,000 in addition to the $150,000 already invested by the founders. Proceeds will be reinvested into the expansion of Zara into new markets and products. Purpose Approach The purpose in business is to maintain the responsiveness to the changing trends in consumer tastes through creating new designs fast that are suitable for all customers at an affordable price. In the ongoing expansion process we have decided to move into the Puget Sound Region because of the many advantages that could be exploited. We have considered several elements that we have learned throughout the semester and applied them in our decision making process. Worth of ZARA We have created a payroll chart for the just the four owners that will be our only staff, which the profit is divided evenly for all four owner. Accounting for the identifiable logo and the cost of operations our acquisition proposal would be $#######. This figure is derived from our analysis, where we multiplied our average monthly sales figure by eight percent because we included the branding of Zara and it helps us minimize our risk by not overspending. The total cost of revenue for the first year of opening is estimated at $350,000.00. Estimate Business Cycle Comparative Statement Current Assets Current Liability Working Capital Long Term Liability Zara Income Statement Lease (including Insurance and other Expense) Operating Expense Tax for cost of revenue Total Expense Payroll Hourly Wage Hours Gross Pay Tax Managers / Owner (4) N/A 4,160 Yearly Total Balance Sheet Asset Cash AR Inventory Equipment Three departments Men Æ’Â   Son Women Æ’Â   Ashley Children Æ’Â   Justin Open Shift Æ’Â   Justin Closing Shift Æ’Â   Huy Three Sunday unless holiday or event We agree on that we as the owner are the only worker in our newly franchise Zara store. Cost distributes Lenders Suppliers Government -Assumption 8.8%- How much inventory needed? Starting Inventory Number of Employee South Center Mall Mall hours 10:00 am 9:30 pm Monday to Saturday 11:00 am 7:00 pm Sunday 80 hours open per week 52 weeks in a year 80 X 52 = 4160 hours open in a year 2467.56 X 12 = 29610.72 / 4160 = 7.12 transaction per hour Price of Space $27.76 per square feet Size of space 4000 square feet 4000 X $27.76 = $111,040.00 $111,040 / 45 = 2467.56 transaction Price Range per Item $35.00 to $79.00 Asset 640 item on displace and for sale Piece $8.00 Mark-up $2.08 $10.08 Mark-up 26% Children Selling Price $35.00 $57.00 $79.00 Mark-up $9.00 $15.00 $29.54 Cogs $44.10 $71.82 $99.54 Total Cogs $215.46 Revenue $171.00 Profit 45 Contract Specifies All included Utilities Water / Sewage / Garbage Insurance $111,040 X 12 = $1,332,480 rent per year Bank of America Available for amounts up to $100,000 Provides a one-time lump sum with fixed monthly payments Quick approval process Lets you borrow without using your business or personal assets as collateral Competitive, fixed rate of interest Maximum term up to 5 years Set the stage for the success of your practice. 100% practice financing plus working capital available Buyer/Seller referral network Demographic site analysis Fixed and variable rates with terms up to 15 years Deferred, graduated, and interest-only payment plans available Combined practice and real estate loans available Financing for equipment, cabinetry, and office furniture, fixtures, and supplies Financing for renovations and construction Financing can include architecture, design, and management consulting fees All terms and features subject to credit approval. Some restrictions apply. Zara Operations To be successful in providing high quality products to all of our customers at a price that is affordable we selected our locations based on the locations that are similar to those of other Zara stores. Our strategy is to move from city to city while continuing the business practices used by Zara and implementing information technology. Our preference in location is derived from the closeness to the entertainment, financial institutions, art museums, and upscale restaurants. This preference allows us to reach numerous customers because it would be located in areas that people will either drive or walk passed. While receiving the attention provided by our friendly personable salespeople, customers will enjoy our in-store coffee shop and the ambiance that is created by our interior designers. We intend to utilize information technology to flatten the hierarchical structure of management, thus, granting our employees more decision-making power and responsibility. Exploiting information technology through implementation of TPS and DSS will enable us to organize information that can be used to improve the decision-making quality. Customers could use our online store to receive reminders of birthdays and other holidays, so that they can send gifts as well as getting the news on the new styles to be release in the near future. We have created our website with the goal of making it east to use, therefore, allowing customers to participate in sales promotions as well as providing feedback on products. They could also view the feedback of other customers. The website can also be customized to fit the customers shopping behaviors. (pp. 295) Future Potential of ZARA This business has a lot of potential. We could possibly incorporate different marketing strategies although the one used has proven to be successful. Zara could also develop an online website. Through the online store we will sell our products and do some pre-marketing of new products before they are released in addition to collecting consumer responses about the products. Another potential factor that we have considered is to open discount stores that would allow the business to sell the surpluses in inventory. This will enable us to become more efficient. The areas we have chosen for the location of our stores are downtown Seattle, Bellevue Square, and the South Center Mall in Tukwila. These areas fit the needs of surrounding businesses, our staff members, the seasonal shoppers, and the vacationing tourists. The selected areas also offer a wide variety of restaurants, tourist attractions, and entertainment, which could prove to be an advantage. (pp. 331-332) Zara Investment Recommendations Considering the risks involved of opening a business, we are confident about the future profitability, so we highly recommend the purchase of Zara. We are confident about our recommendation because we would be entering into a franchise that has maintained its success, opened its retail stores in great locations, and utilized the products of the research and development in our business practices. These actions translate into great potential for profitability because many of the practices have already been proven to be effective. Another advantage could be created by the implementation of information technology that will improve processes and performance amongst internal customers. Looking at the future potential of the business allows us to be confident in our decision as we embrace the expansion of Zara into the Puget Sound region.

Aikido & Sport

Aikido is a martial art and a way of life from Japan which is a result of many years of research, practice and development. It is unique among Japanese martial arts because it emphasizes the importance of achieving complete mental calm and control of one's own body to master an opponent's attack.It is not only concerned with how to defeat an opponent but how to live our daily lives as well.It is also known for emphasizes the spiritual and philosophical development of its students.   Aikido offers specific benefits such as responsibility, respect, and confidence in training and in life. Aikido training consists of five parts: Tai, Ki, Toku, Chi and Joshiki.These five principles of aikido are found in every technique and method. Simultaneous development of these elements leads to ideal personal development.The first element of aikido training is bodily realization or Tai training. This comes foremost in the practice of martial arts. It aims to develop the physical aspect through the practice of the principle of oneness in techniques.This part of Aikido training is for all-around physical fitness, flexibility, and relaxation. Its purpose is to strengthen and purify our bodies. Through physical mastery, we gain the power in the breath of heaven and earth or â€Å"kokyuryoku.†The development of the body, is to help us carry out the activities we must do to be good people and help others in our society. We use it to live and help others. The stronger a person’s body is, the more things one can do and learn, thereby strengthening both mind and body.The second part of the Aikido training is Ki development or mental realization. Ki is the Japanese word for Life Force, which focuses around the development of energy and unification of mind and body through discipline. This discipline starts with learning to use physical energy correctly in the Aikido movements. With practice, agreement and synchronization of body andAikido  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   2mind develops gr adually and the process of realization begins. Once self-confidence and awareness of being at one with the universe is increased, then fear loses its meaning, thus the start of true spiritual strength. The stronger the person’s ki, the stronger they will be physically, mentally and emotionally.The third focus of Aikido training is achieving moral and ethical realization. This places the principle of oneness with the universe into everyday living.The development of ethics is to help us become better social beings and to live harmoniously in society and nature. Thus all the trainings and teachings in Aikido should be incorporated to our daily lives to attain the path of truthfulness and thus attain oneness with the universe.The fourth focus of Aikido training is spiritual or wisdom realization, also called as Chi which means the development of wisdom through coming to know the truth of oneness. It is having the right intentions through right understanding. It means not having t o look for conflict but simply living Aikido not as a weapon but as a guide.The last principle of Aikido training is Joshi or Common sense development. It is often defined as the recognition of and respect for all living things. The nurturing of common sense is to help us to continuously learn as we live.With common sense, we would know how to act when we face a totally new situation or environment which would allow us to face the future without fear. The better our common sense, the easier it is to deal with uncommon things.The purpose of Aikido is not simply to teach defense. It is to develop oneself to become a better individual that will fit better in society, and consequently improving society itself. The self defense aspect is just an additional benefit of Aikido. The five principles of training lead to the most important functions of aikido which are spiritual discipline and physical mastery.Aikido  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   4ReferencesDobson, T., & Miller V. (1993). Aikido in everyday life: Giving in to get your way. California: North Atlantic Books.Crane R., & Crane K. (1993). Aikido in training: A manual of traditional aikido practice and principles. Berlin, New Jersey: Cool Rain Productions.  Tohei, K. (1978). Ki in daily life. USA: Japan Publications.Mitsugi, S. (1989). The principles of aikido (Wellington, I. Ed.). Boston, Massachusetts: Shambhala.Wildish, P. (1999). Principles of aikido: The only introduction you’ll ever need. USA: Thorsons.Stevens, J. (1999). Training with the master: Lessons with Morihei Ueshiba, founder of aikido. Boston, Massachusetts: Shambhala.Homma, G. (1990). Aikido for Life. California: North Atlantic Books.

Poverty in the UK Essay

In 1886, Charles Booth investigated the extent of poverty in London. His was the first systematic sociological study of poverty in the UK. The results, presented in 1902-3, documented the living and working condition of the London poor. Adopting a relative approach to poverty — which was defined as the inability to meet the usual standard of life — Booth estimated that the level at which poverty set in for a family of two adults and three children was 21 shillings per week (? 1. 05 today). Booth estimated that 30. 7 per cent of London’s total population were in poverty. Around the same time, adopting an absolute perspective on poverty, Seebohm Rowntree investigated the state of the poor in the city of York in 1899. He highlighted the minimum standard of living which fulfilled people’s biological needs for food, water, clothing and shelter. This is also referred to as the subsistence level. Rowntree subsequently drew up a list of those minimum personal and household necessities required for survival and established two categories of poverty. Primary poverty is when the person is unable to acquire the minimum necessitates, secondary poverty is when a portion of the person’s total earnings is absorbed by other useful or wasteful expenditure such that it is not possible to maintain the minimum standard. Poverty can be defined in several ways, Booth took a relative approach and Rowntree took an absolute approach. In the post-war era, there has been a more pronounced shift from viewing poverty as predominantly a monetary and economic phenomenon to regarding and acknowledging its more qualitative and subjective aspects. By the end of the 1950s, the period of rationing and shortages was over and, with almost full employment, the UK seemed ‘never to have had it so good’. Yet, by the 1960s, a number of social policy academics close to the Labour Party (such as Tawney and Townsend) raised the issue of the continuing existence of poverty in a period of greater prosperity. Townsend questioned absolute definitions of poverty (such as those of Rowntree) which were outdated and failed to take account of the problems some people had in fully participating in society. Townsend’s definitive work on poverty in the UK in 1979 (Townsend 1992) went beyond an absolute definition based on physical needs, to view poverty in relation to a generally accepted standard of living, in a specific society, at a particular time. Individuals can be said to be in poverty when they lack the resources to obtain the types of diet, participate in the activities and have the living conditions and amenities which are customary, or at least widely encouraged and approved, in the societies which they belong. (p. 31) Townsend suggested a definition that was closer in tune to the concept of citizenship — poverty constituted a lack of resources that would enable a person to able to participate in the normal expectations and customs of a society. This kind of definition also would imply that the indicators of poverty can change over time in order to embrace changes in society. In the 1960’s, Townsend used the example of not being able to afford a proper Sunday lunch as an indicator of poverty. The idea of a Sunday roast meal might not be so relevant today because of changes in family life and the way people gather together, and therefore is not so much an integral aspect of what people can be expected to do normally. On the other hand, Townsend’s indicator of giving presents to near members of the family for birthdays or Christmas still holds. In his 1979 work, Townsend identified twelve items he believed were be relevant to the whole population, and gave each household surveyed a score on a deprivation index. The higher the score, the more deprived was the household. Townsend calculated that 22. 9 per cent of the population fell under the threshold of deprivation (Giddens 2006). When talking about poverty, researchers usually base their work on measures of deprivation rather than the identification of poverty by itself. The existence of deprivation is taken as a surrogate for the existence of poverty. People are said to be deprived materially and socially if they lack the material standards (diet, housing ad clothing) and the services and amenities (recreational, educational, environmental, social) which would allow them to participate in commonly accepted roles and relationship within society. The compass of poverty is complex, embracing the unemployed, those on low pay or in insecure work, the sick, the elderly, and the unskilled. Some minority ethnic groups also come into the picture, for example, Pakistanis and Bangladeshis in the UK have, in general, high rates of poverty compared to other groups (Giddens 2006). Absolute poverty assumes that it is possible to define a minimum standard of living based on a person’s biological needs for food, water, clothing and shelter. The emphasis is on basic physical needs and not on broader social and cultural needs. Rowntree’s studies of poverty in York in 1901, 1936, and 1951 used such an approach to poverty. But another way of viewing poverty is of relative poverty, which goes beyond biological needs, and is not simply about a lack of money but also about exclusion form the customs of society. Relative poverty is about social exclusion imposed by an inadequate income. Social exclusion is a broader concept than poverty encompassing not only low material means but the inability to participate effectively in economic, social, political and cultural life, implying alienation and distance from the mainstream society (Giddens 2006). Social exclusion may both be a precursor to poverty and an important consequence of it. In 1984, Mack and Lansley study established that the poverty threshold covered not only the basic essentials for survival (such as food and shelter) but also the ability to participate in society and play a social role: for the first time ever, a majority of people see the necessities of life in Britain in the 1980s as covering a wide range of goods and activities, and†¦ people judge a minimum standard of living on socially established criteria and not just the criteria of survival or subsistence. (Mack & Lansley 1985 : 55) In the 1980s, the discussion of poverty turned increasingly to the notion of polarisation and to the shrinking portion of the UK cake held by the poorest. Poverty and wealth are not simply the ‘bottom’ and ‘top’ of the income distribution, they are polarised social conditions (Scott 1994). Income polarisation was also compounded by a number of policy measure introduced in the 1980s, such as a reduction in the level of income tax for high earners and increasing use of indirect taxes. Academics showed that polarisation and social disparities were growing between those who had benefited from the measures of the successive Thatcher administrations and those who had lost out, while the Thatcher government as the time tried to deny the excesses of Thatcherism. According to an analysis of the Child Poverty Action Group, in the regime of Margaret Thatcher, more than 63 billion has been transferred in subsidies from the poor to the rich (Oppenheim and Harker 1996) Research in the 1990’s on the distribution of wealth and poverty in the UK has been produced under a Joseph Rowntree Foundation research initiative. This research highlighted that the number of people living in households with under half the national average income fell between the early 1960s and 1970s from five million to three million, but then rose to eleven million in 1991, to a point where one in five households were living on under half the national average income. The number of individuals under 60 living in households without paid work has more than doubled – from 4.1. million, or 8 per cent, in 1979, to 9. 4 million, or 19 per cent by the mid 1990s. This has been accompanied by a widening gap in the incomes of households in paid work and those out of paid work. In 1997, 12 million people in the UK (almost 25% of the population) lived below the poverty line, defined as under half the average wage, and two out of five children were born poor. Today, according to OECD (Organisation for Economic cooperation and Development), Britain has one of the worst poverty records in the developed world (Giddens 2006). According to the latest available statistics, nearly 1 in 4 people in the UK – amounting to 13 million people – live in poverty. This includes nearly 4 million children – signifying a shocking 1 in 3 ratio (Oxfam GB 2003). The explanations that have been offered as causes of poverty fall under two categories, individualistic theories and structural theories. Here we will focus on the former. Individualistic theories identify the main causes of poverty within individuals themselves. Social and cultural factors are not entirely discounted, but more emphasis is place on inappropirated individual behaviours. There are three main types of individualistic theories. Orthodox economic theory: This theory proposes that poverty can be explained by the economic deficiency of the individual . Harold Lydall argues that the general abilities of men in the labour force determine the distribution of incomes. These abilities are assumed to be created by genetic, environmental and educational factors. To reduce poverty, policies need to target individuals’ own value systems, to develop their own personal qualities in a manner that makes them more capable and efficient. The individual is poor because he has not maximised his true potential in the labour market. Minority group theory: Minority group theory originate from the earliest studies of poverty based on the findings of Booth and Rowntree. These pioneering social scientists did not attempt to discover the causes of poverty, merely the characteristics of certain groups of poor people. Minority group theory has largely constructed its explanation for poverty through examining the characteristics of the poor – for example, being old, being married with dependent children. Going beyond such demographic indicators, the theory implicates alleged ‘faulty’ characteristics. The classification of ‘ar-risk’ groups has prompted policy makers to implement a benefit system to ensure that the most basic of needs are met, without encouraging idleness or apathy. The poverty policies of successive governments have often informed by minority group theory. Subculture of poverty theory: Subculture of poverty theory is derived form a number of anthropological and sociological studies, particularly, the work of Oscar Lewis. It was Lewis who in 1959 introduced the term ‘the culture of poverty’ in an effort to draw an analogy between the Mexican lower class families and those in other parts of the world. He attempted to explain the phenomenon of the persistence of poverty in different countries. The basic idea has its roots in the Chicago School of Sociology and the work of Robert E. Park. According to Park the patterns of the neighbourhood, and the slum in particular, once they come into being, take on a life of their own and are to a great extent self-generating and self-perpetuating. A sociological process known as labeling also underpins this phenomenon. Labelling somebody negatively may also lead to increased surveillance or segregation from the wider community which further increases (and even creates) the predicted behaviour (Fulcher and Scott 2001). These processes, whereby people tend to live up to the expectation of others are known to be self-fulfilling. Oscar Lewis implies a similar understanding in his formulation of the notion of the culture of poverty. Lewis claimed that poverty affected the very personality of slum dwellers. The poor tend to be at once apathetic yet alienated, happy-go-lucky yet miserable. Other negative characteristics that mark the psychological orientation of poor people include laziness, being unambitious, being disorganised, and fatalistic. To fight poverty at its roots, such psychological tendencies need to be gradually eroded, with more positive attitudes taking their place. Much work also needs to be done on making the destitute people more attractive to their potential employers, in terms of skills and educational qualifications. Substantial and sustained reductions in poverty depend on raising the level of qualifications among older teenagers and young adults in the bottom quarter of educational achievement. Lack of progress here is a major concern for longer term progress on reducing poverty. (Joseph Rowntree Foundation 2006) References: Giddens, A. (2006). Sociology. Cambridge : Polity Press Fulcher, J. & Scott J. (2001). Sociology. Oxford : Oxford University Press Joseph Rowntree Foundation. (2006). Monitoring poverty and social exclusion in the UK 2006. Retrieved 20 March 2007 from http://www.poverty. org. uk/reports/mpse%202006%20findings. pdf Mack, J. & Lansley, S. (1985). Poor Britain. London : Unwin Hyman Oppenheim,C. & Harker, L. (1996). Poverty: the Facts, 3rd ed. London : Child Poverty Action Oxfam GB. (2003). The facts about poverty in the UK. Retrieved 20 March 2007 from http://www. oxfamgb. org/ukpp/poverty/thefacts. htm Scott, J. (1994). Poverty and Wealth: Citizenship, Deprivation and Privilege (Longman Sociology Series). London : Longman Group United Kingdom Townsend, P. (1992). Poverty in the UK. Berkeley : University of California Press